Writing assignment on the movie American History X Essay

Writing assignment on the movie American History X - Essay Example One of the adolescents escapes while Derek smashes the cranium of one of the adolescents against the pavement. This is a movie about racism. It is also about the effects of racism on the psyches of Danny and Derek Vinyard. Derek gets convicted for assaulting the black adolescents and is sent to prison for three years. This movie is a perspective of the multiplying effect of racial animosity and how it can cause a person to overreact. While incarcerated, Derek adopts a nationalistic white supremacist posture. The element which adds interest to this cinematic work is that Derek is intelligent and articulate. Derek believes that Americans should be given opportunities to work. Derek articulates this point to such a degree that he motivates the adolescents in the neighborhood to attack and rampage through a Korean grocery establishment. Derek justifies this by stating that the Korean establishment should have hired at least one or two Americans rather than hire forty Mexican migrant workers. The quote from the book titled: Higher Learning in America 1980- 2000 which states: â€Å"It is a generation which defines itself more by its differences than its similarities† (Levine, 1993 p 336) applies again when Derek in confronted in the correctional facility and is rescued from white supremacists who sexually assault him. Derek is rescued by a black man who later becomes his friend and coworker in the correctional facility laundry. This black man who ironically saves Derek from members of his own race who sexual assault him is named Lamont (Guy Torry). In this part of the movie titled : American History X, it is demonstrated that there are two sides to every story. The quote from the book titled: Higher Learning in America 1980- 2000 by Arthur Levine which states: â€Å"It is a generation more defined by its differences than its similarities† (Levine 1993 p 336) becomes more and more

Describe the global issue of TB and the impact it has on the health Assignment

Describe the global issue of TB and the impact it has on the health system of the most affected region - Assignment Example It is third biggest cause of death, after HIV/AIDS and ischemic heart disease in the age group of 15-59 years. There are many undeniable reasons to urgently improve TB control. While millions of people transverse countries and continents every day by crossing borders, global security is at stake. Introduction Tuberculosis (TB) is an airborne, potentially fatal infectious disease, acquiring pandemic proportion affecting almost all countries, is indeed a major global health concern. A third of the world’s population carries latent TB infection, which can appear at any time as symptomatic and at times life threatening disease when the immune systems of the infected persons are compromised. While many will never become ill, those who get are often suffer due to inadequate and incomplete treatment with an undesirable outcome because of their vulnerable and fragile health systems. A major cause of death, TB ranks as the eighth leading cause of death in low and middle income countrie s. It is third biggest cause of death, after HIV/AIDS and ischemic heart disease in the age group of 15-59 years (Lopez et al. 2006). TB, generally, is a curable disease; people with drug-sensitive type can be cured in six months. However, treatment of multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB) that are resistant to isoniazid and rifampicin, the two most important first-line drugs used in treatment of TB, is really challenging. There is around 0.4–0.5 million cases of MDR-TB each year. It requires use of second-line drugs that are costlier with severe side-effects, and treatment has to continue for longer period may be up to two years. Even then prognosis is not always very good for, with success rate of 50% to 70% (WHO 2010). Countries most affected by TB and populations most at risk According to the WHO (2010) each year, there are around 9 million new cases of TB, and about 2 million deaths due to TB infection. Almost every country of the world is affected by the TB, however, most cas es (85%) occur in Asia (55%), and Africa (30%) with India and China alone account for 35% of all cases. Of all the world’s TB cases, 80% of the cases are reported from 22 countries (Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Brazil, Cambodia, China, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, India, Indonesia, Kenya, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nigeria, Pakistan, Philippines, the Russian Federation, South Africa, Thailand, Uganda, the United Republic of Tanzania, Vietnam and Zimbabwe), which are known as high-burden countries (HBCs) and have been given special attention in TB control (WHO 2010). Patients suffering from HIV/AIDS, TB infection is more fatal though such incidence is low, just over 10% of the TB cases that occur each year are among people living with HIV. Africa alone has 80% of such cases. The HIV epidemic caused a major rise in TB cases in Africa during the 1980s and 1990s with highest numbers reached in 2004, and have since begun to decline. There were around 1.3 million deaths fr om TB among HIV-negative people and around 0.4 million deaths from TB among HIV-positive people in 2009 (WHO 2010). TB is not restricted to low and middle income countries; it has affected the United States as well. According to Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)’s (2010) report in 2010, a total of 11,181 (a rate of 3.6 cases per 100,000 population) tuberculosis (TB) cases were reported in the United States which was a

Social Workers Working In And Across Organisations Social Work Essay

Social Workers Working In And Across Organisations Social Work Essay Firstly I would like to focus on the policies and legislation which has shaped partnership working. The ideas of collaboration and partnership working now form a large body of policies and legislation, which include some duties for statutory inter agency working. I have examined only some of the key polices and legislation as there are too many to examine for the purpose of this essay. I have made reference to partnership working for each one. Firstly I look at the UK wide policies/legislations and then I focus on Welsh policy. Firstly the Seebohm Report (HMSO, 1968) argued for a co-operation across the spectrum of welfare state services and more effective co-operation by different professionals. It proposed a major restructuring of personal social services into a unified social service department. National Health Service and Community Care Act (HMSO, 1990) gave a duty to local authorities to assess and where applicable meet a persons needs for community care services by collaboration with other agencies. Building Bridges (DOH, 1995) this encourages interdisciplinary and multiagency care planning. The Health and Social Care Act 2001 (Home Office, 2001) created new powers to establish care trusts by building on existing health and local authority powers to forge partnerships and provide integrated care. The National Service Framework for Older People (DOH, 2001) set out standards for care of older people across health and social services. It aimed to remove age discrimination, provide person center care, promoting independence and fitting services around people needs. Means for achieving these aims included the single assessment process and integration in commissioning arrangement and service provision. Valuing people a new strategy for learning disability for the 21st century (DH, 2001) highlighted partnership working through local partnership boards and inter-professional/inter agency co-operation are seen as central to achieving the four key principles of rights, independence, choice and inclusion for people with learning disabilities. National Service Framework (NSF) for Ol der People (Department of Health, 2001) highlighted that agencies should not duplicate each others assessments, and professionals should contribute to assessments in the most effective way. Community Care (Delayed Discharge) Act (DoH, 2003) introduced a new dynamic in interagency and inter professional relationships. It made social services authorities liable to reimburse the NHS for delays where patients in hospital are medically fit but unable to be discharged due solely to social service inability to provide assessment and community care services within a required timescale. Every Child Matters (HMSO, 2003) in response to the Victoria Climbi inquiry, it proposed: improved interagency information sharing and co-operation; work in multi-disciplinary teams; a lead professional role; creation of local safeguarding boas; in the long term integration of key services for children and young people in childrens trusts under a director of childrens services. Children Act ( 2004) allowed the creation of database to support professionals in sharing information. The Carers (Equal Opportunities) Act (DOH, 2004) placed a duty on social service to inform carers of their right to an assessment. It also enabled social services to ask other public bodies including the health organizations to provide service to careers. Single Assessment Process Implementation Guidance (DOH, 2004) sets out how the single assessment process described in the Mental Capacity Act (2005) where social workers and care professionals acting on behalf of someone who lacks capacity must act in a persons best interest. Working Together to Safeguard Children (DfES, 2006) aaddressed to practitioners and managers, sets out how organisations and individuals should work together to safeguard and promote the welfare of children, stressing shared responsibility and the need to understand the roles of others. It described the role of local safeguarding childrens boards (LSCBs), training for inter-agency work and the detailed processes for managing individual cases. These elements are statutory guidance, which required compliance. Mental Health Act (2007) amended the 1983 Act broadening the group of professional practitioners who undertake approved social worker (ASW) functions, to be known as Approved Mental Health Professionals. Concurrently, the code of practice of the 1983 Act was updated, stressing inter-professional collaboration in assessment and after care planning and involvement of patients and carers. Building brighter futures: next steps for the childrens workforce (DfE, 2008) set out the compon ents of integrated working as they are emerging through Childrens Trusts. It considered the contribution of the Common Core of Skills and Knowledge and the pros and cons of professional identities and boundaries. It looked forward to achieving a broad vision of integrated working that has support across the whole childrens workforce. Now I would like to focus upon the policies that are specifically within Wales. Firstly, The Review of Health and Social Care in Wales, (WAG, 2003) emphasized the importance of multi-agency working and looked at decision-making processes, the capacity and effectiveness of existing services, the capacity of management, the processes governing standard setting, information management, resource flows, and incentives and sanctions. The Report of the Wanless Committee (WAG, 2004) focuses on shared decision-making between professionals and users and patients. It also highlights that there needs to be integrated thinking across health and social care boundaries and highlights the need for a new approach for funding health and social care. Making the Connections: Delivering Better Services for Wales: The Welsh Assembly Government Vision for Public Services (WAG, 2004). This policy aims to increase efficiency through more effective co-operation across the public services and to place people a nd communities at the centre, enabling active participation in service planning design and delivery. Children and Young People: Rights to Action Stronger Partnerships for Better Outcomes (WAG, 2005). This paper outlines the expectation from the assembly government for local agencies to take a joint approach in planning services to make them as effective as possible. Fulfilled Lives, Supportive Communities: Improving Social Services in Wales from 2008-2018 (WAG, 2006). This focuses on partnership arrangements which put the citizen at the centre and work effectively across sectors and organisations using care pathways to support people. Lastly, Sustainable Social Services for Wales A Framework for Action (WAG, 2011) highlights the importance of developing more integration of health and social services for children, young people, and frail older people, and in respect of re-ablement services. Joining up in this way will help break down barriers that can often get in the way of provid ing services and drive out duplication. This sets out the current vision for partnership working within Wales until 2016. As highlighted above there are many key pieces of legislation and policies which highlight the importance of multi-agency working. Since the 1960s there has been a focus on partnership working for social services. There are some key principles and ethical issues to partnership working and there can be some dilemmas to this. The next part of this essay will focus upon key principles and ethical issues. There are many areas to partnership working that may lead to some dilemmas. Glasby (2004) defines inter-professional working as to or more people from different professions communicate and co-operate to achieve a common goal. Adams et al (2006) highlights the importance of having a professional identity is to partnership working. Adams et al (2006) suggests that a professional identity gives a person a set of values, expertise, role and responsibilities. Currently my practice learning level three is based within the Adult Community Care Team (ACCT) which implements care plans for clients with presenting eligible needs. To ensure that clients needs are met there is a process which involves various professionals that are involved within the information gathering and care planning for example social worker, health, brokerage, finance team and carer assessors. During my placement I have been able to see the importance of working with other professionals to deliver effective services for the clients. During one unified assessment (UA) I completed I worked collaboratively with a nurse to complete the UA. The reason for this is to identify if this particular client was in need of a nursing home rather than a residential home. Therefore the expertise of the nurse as vital to complete the assessment. However there were some key issues that Key principles Retaining professional identification Partnership working can be complex and often brings people together who have different views on what is right for a service user with different approaches ( Gasper, 2010). Whittington (2003) suggests that if professionals can understand what they have in common, what they can contribute distinctively, what can be complementary and identify the possible tensions between them it can improve the effectiveness of partnership working. By identifying these areas professionals can complement each to benefit the client overall. Keeping (2006) highlights a general uncertainty from other professionals around what social workers actually do. Lack of knowledge of what each professional involved does can lead to stereotyping each worker (Lymbery, 2006). This means that it is important for social workers to remember what responsibilities lay with them when working with other professionals. Building relationships and trust Seden et al (2011) suggests that social workers are often caught between care and control finding their way through complex relationships with service users, other professionals, peers and the public. Trust is an important factor in facilitating open discussion and successful role negation, both of which are important features of inter-professional working (Barrett and Keeping, 2005). Where professionals trust each others motives, competence and dependability they are more able to manage risky situations (Lawson, 2004). Trust is an important element of collaborative working relationship. Gasper (2010) highlights that partnership working can mean better access to service and an avoidance of duplication which means service can be delivered in more of a cost-effective way. Differences in languages Within partnership working there can be many professionals involved. Issues may arise when there is a use of specialist language that not everyone understands (Maguire and Truscott, 2006) Communication Communication across professions can be difficult especially when they are not in the same location, this can result in a breakdown of communication and delays in services (McCormack et al, 2008) Inequalities in status and pay There may be differences in status between professionals and this must be acknowledged to see if they impact upon communication (Barrett and Keeping, 2005). Some practitioners perceive threats to their professional status, autonomy and control when asked to participate in more democratic decision making forums (Lloyd and Wait, 2006). Conflicting organisation and professional boundaries There is often un-clarity around the roles of voluntary and service users in partnership working (Marks, 2007) Resources can be split into three areas; money, information and time. Issues around money can be identified in several areas. One is that there are different funding cycles, separate budgets and financial pressures (Frye and Webb, 2002). Some professionals may be reluctant in funding services if there is a pressure on budgets (Roy and Watts, 2001). Information sharing can pose constrains for partnership working. Partnership working needs a sufficient amount of time dedicated for it to be effective (Atkinson, 2007). Frost and Lloyd (2006) suggested that time is needed for relationships to develop and trust to be built. These are key components for agreements to be made around protocols and reflection upon new professional identifies (Frost and Lloyd, 2006).

Transformation of Macbeth :: Macbeth essays

Transformation of Macbeth   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the beginning of Shakesphere's, Macbeth, the character, Macbeth is basically an everyday normal type of soldier fighting and killing for his king.   His title at this point is the Thane of Glamis.   Upon having a great day on the battlefield, including killing MacDonwald, Macbeth has no clue as to what is in store for him. When Macbeth and his friend Banquo meet the witches for the first time, they are completely shocked.   While talking with the witches Macbeth and Banquo are told that Macbeth will be named the Thane of Cawdor, and then later king.   They also told Banquo that his children will be kings, but that Banquo would not.   After hearing this Macbeth begins to become ashamed with himself to think that he actually thought about killing the king in order to the throne from Duncan.   At this point he is somewhat confused and maybe more curious than anything.   His thought was not to do anything drastic to become king.   He basically says, whatever happens, happens.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   When Macbeth arrives home to his wife, Lady Macbeth, she begins to play mind games with him.   She does this by trying to convince him to murder Duncan. She tells him things like â€Å"If you were a real man you'd do it†.   This upsets Macbeth, and he begins to think that he is actually going to do it, and eventually carries it out. What he doesn't realize is that he will later regret his actions, and wish that he could turn back time.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As soon as Macbeth has killed Duncan, he seems to start to lose his mind. He just doesn't know what to do with himself.   In fact, he cannot finish smearing the blood on the chamberlains, lady Macbeth had to.   As time goes by Macbeth begins to think that to keep his name clear he must kill all the people that may pose a threat to him.   Even if it means killing his best friend, Banquo.   Macbeth did this by hiring people to kill him.   They succeeded in killing Banquo but his son Fleance escaped. Although this wasn't the end of Macbeth's killing, for instance he killed one man's(Macduff's) family, which basically didn't make any sense.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   After a couple more run ins with the witches, Macbeth completely loses all his ability to think straight and starts killing people just to prevent anyone from finding that he killed Duncan.   Not only has Macbeth lost his mind, so has lady Macbeth.   She is always caught walking in her sleep talking about Duncan's death, and she eventually commits suicide.

A Book Report on Poe’s “The Tell Tale Heart”

The Tell-Tale Heart, by Edgar Allan Poe, is written in the first person. This is proven because â€Å"I† is used to tell the story. This story told is by a participating narrator. The narrator is also the main character. The point of view used in this story is the unreliable narrator; this is a point of view according to Literature by X. J. Kennedy and Dana Gioia. This view was chosen because the narrator was very deceptive, deluded and deranged. For example, â€Å"I cut off the head and the arms and the legs†. (pg. 36). I find this to be extremely deranged. The narrator was also very deceptive by playing a trick on the older man in bed every night. The deluded madman would spy on the old man at midnight every night for seven days straight. By the eighth day he had this deranged plan to kill him. So, at midnight the madman came into the room quietly, or so he tried, and suffocated the old man. In the meantime the old man was scared when he heard some noises but probably thought that it was only a mouse or something. Because the man did not get up and check on the noises, it cost him his life. The old man was tricked on thinking it was just a noise an old house makes. Therefore, The point of view used in the story was that of an unreliable narrator in the first person. Raymond Carver had many influences in his life that contributed to his short stories and poems. But his main influence was his family. With two kids and married at the age of 19, he definitely had his hands full. He would try and write stories to support his children while engaging in other labor jobs during the day. Everyday life is an inspiration on everyone. People might not realize it but what happens everyday has an affect or influence on the way they approach life. For example, Carver†s day at the laundry mat. He realized that life isn†t what it is cracked out to be and he noticed this just by being frustrated because he couldn†t get any driers. Also, Carver†s professor at Chico State University, John Gardner, was a great influence at the time. Gardner helped Carver with some of his short stories. He would help Carver by being really patient and helping understand what he needs to do better. Education is a great influence on life. It introduces new perspectives to life and opens many new doors of opportunity. Without education or his family Raymond Carver might not have been as successful as he has. A Book Report on Poe’s â€Å"The Tell Tale Heart† The Tell-Tale Heart, by Edgar Allan Poe, is written in the first person. This is proven because â€Å"I† is used to tell the story. This story told is by a participating narrator. The narrator is also the main character. The point of view used in this story is the unreliable narrator; this is a point of view according to Literature by X. J. Kennedy and Dana Gioia. This view was chosen because the narrator was very deceptive, deluded and deranged. For example, â€Å"I cut off the head and the arms and the legs†. (pg. 36). I find this to be extremely deranged. The narrator was also very deceptive by playing a trick on the older man in bed every night. The deluded madman would spy on the old man at midnight every night for seven days straight. By the eighth day he had this deranged plan to kill him. So, at midnight the madman came into the room quietly, or so he tried, and suffocated the old man. In the meantime the old man was scared when he heard some noises but probably thought that it was only a mouse or something. Because the man did not get up and check on the noises, it cost him his life. The old man was tricked on thinking it was just a noise an old house makes. Therefore, The point of view used in the story was that of an unreliable narrator in the first person. Raymond Carver had many influences in his life that contributed to his short stories and poems. But his main influence was his family. With two kids and married at the age of 19, he definitely had his hands full. He would try and write stories to support his children while engaging in other labor jobs during the day. Everyday life is an inspiration on everyone. People might not realize it but what happens everyday has an affect or influence on the way they approach life. For example, Carver†s day at the laundry mat. He realized that life isn†t what it is cracked out to be and he noticed this just by being frustrated because he couldn†t get any driers. Also, Carver†s professor at Chico State University, John Gardner, was a great influence at the time. Gardner helped Carver with some of his short stories. He would help Carver by being really patient and helping understand what he needs to do better. Education is a great influence on life. It introduces new perspectives to life and opens many new doors of opportunity. Without education or his family Raymond Carver might not have been as successful as he has.

Right to Counsel

Right to Counsel CJA/364 October 9, 2011 Right to Counsel Every individual is afforded the right to counsel in criminal proceedings. It is the liability of the government to provide every defendant facing criminal charges with legal representation that also is considered sufficient (2011). The Sixth Amendment to the U. S. Constitution guarantees every individual the right to a swift and public trial from an unbiased jury of his or her peers in the state or district in which the crime was committed in (1995-2011). The district should have been beforehand established by law, and to be educated of the nature and reason for the charge, the right to face the eyewitness in opposition of him or her, to have necessary process for gathering eyewitnesses in his or her support (1995-2011). Last, the Sixth Amendment affords and individual the right to have the aid of an attorney for his or her defense (1995-2011). The last statement of the Sixth Amendments establishes that every individual has a right to counsel from the very second he or she is placed in police confinement (2011). The judgments of the U. S. Supreme Court also indicates that the Right to Counsel be provided to any individual who is insolvent or penniless and that the individual is guaranteed the right to the attendance of a court-appointed counsel at a crucial point in the criminal trial (2011). The crucial points of these proceedings are composed of custodial questioning, pre-charge lineups, preliminary examinations, arraignment, trial, punishment, and the first appeal of guilty verdict (2011). The Right to Counsel was initiated as a response to the English custom of refusing the aid of counsel in severe criminal proceedings that forces individuals to be present in court and represent his or herself in his or her own words (2011). An example of the strictness of the practice to deny counsel is evident in the trial of Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots in 1568 (2011). Queen Mary was indicted for treason for supposedly plotting to kill Queen Elizabeth I (2011). Queen Mary requested the aid of an attorney on the basis that the laws and statutes of England were unfamiliar to her, she was without an attorney and no one would stand up and speak for her (2011). Queen Mary was eventually found guilty of her crimes and sentenced to death by beheading (2011). The creators of the U. S. Constitution deemed the denial of an attorney revolting to the fundamental ideology of criminal justice (2011). The creators of the U. S. Constitution ascertained that the aid of an attorney was an important factor in sustaining an accusatorial method of justice (2011). The accusatorial method of justice leaves the problem on the state to determine the guiltiness of the defendant (2011). The accusatorial method is in disagreement with the inquisitorial method in which fault or blamelessness is established through questioning of the defendant (2011). The Supreme Court also has interpreted the Sixth Amendment to mean that a defendant is entitled to an attorney that the attorney must also be effective in representing the defendant (2011). The Supreme Court interpreted this to mean that the representation must be diligent and significant (2011). The Supreme Court established that if a defendant is not provided with effective counsel during court proceedings, the conviction could be overturned (2011). The Supreme Court has also established that although the Sixth Amendment guarantees an individual the right to have an attorney, whether the attorney is hired or delegated by the courts that an individual may also represent his or herself (2004-2011). Any individual has the right to represent his or herself in court but a judge may refuse the individual that right to be his or her own counsel if the judge deems the individual lacks the capability to exercise a knowing or competent dismissal of an attorney (2004-2011). The judge may also deny an individual the right to represent his or herself if the representation is in any way disorderly of normal court proceedings (2004-2001). The right for an individaul to represent his or herself is granted only at normal court proceedings and is not available when a case is before the courts on appeal (2004-2011). If a person is granted the right to represent his or herself in court, that individual cannot later state the quality of his or her defense deprived him or her of sufficient aid to an attorney (2004-2011). The crucial components of right to an attorney is highlighted in the case of McKaskle v. Wiggins that detailed the self-represented defendants rights vis-a-vis â€Å"standby counsel† delegated by the trial court (2004-2011). If the defendant is representing his or herself, he or she has the power of how information is presented to the jurors (2004-2011). Even if there is an attorney on standby, the attorney’s presence should in no way alter the jury’s assessment that the individual is representing his or herself (2004-2011). But involvement of a standby attorney in the company of the jury and despite the protest of the defendant does not infringe on the defendants constitutional rights afforded by the Sixth Amendment when the aid is in agreement with normal courtroom principles and practices that alleviates the trail judge of these responsibilites (2004-2011). Some defendants may think it is wise to represent his or herself but if the individual is not well versed in the law he or she could make major mistakes that may cause him or her to lose his or her freedom. It is said that a person who represents his or herself has a fool for a client. An attorney is a delegate of citizens, an officer of the criminal justice system and the public that has an accountability to ensure justice is dispensed (1995-199). The role of an attorney has many facets; a consultant, promoter, delegate, mediator, and an assessor (1995-1999). As a consultant an attorney notifies his or her client with knowledge of his or her constitutional rights and responsibilites and clarifies his or her realistic suggestions (1995-1999). As a promoter an attorney feverously emphasizes the client’s point under the standards of the adversary method (1995-1999). As a delegate an attorney searches for an outcome beneficial to the client but uniform with the necessities of truthful dealings with others (1995-1999). As a mediator among clients an attorney searches to settle his or her conflicting interest (1995-1999). As an assessor an attorney researches his or her client’s legal dealings and informs the client or others of the legal dealings (1995-1999). In criminal court proceedings the prosecutor who works for the state, and the defense attorney who can also work for the state but is there to aid the defendant. The U. S. Supreme Court established in the case of Gideon v. Wainwright that the basic role of applies in a just criminal justice system (2011). The Justices collectively determined that the states possess a legal responsibility afforded within the Sixth and 14th Amendments to offer counsel to any individual who cannot afford one (2011). The judgment emphasized that a penniless individual in a criminal proceeding is guaranteed the aid of an attorney as a basic civil right necessary to ensure a just trial, a client’s trial and sentence deprived of an attorney is an infringement of the 14th Amendment (2011). The privilege to have an ttorney is the most basic bureaucratic safety measure to ensure a just trial in which the government and the defendant stand alike in the eyes of the law (2011). As stated earlier, the Supreme Court established that if a defendant is not provided with effective counsel during court proceedings, the conviction could be overturned (2011). References Right to Counsel 2011 http://legal-dictionary. thefreedictionary. com/right+to+counsel Retrieved October 9, The Exclusionary Rule January 16, 1999 The United States Constitution 1995-2011 U. S. Constitution Online http://www. usconstitution. net/const. html#Am1 Retrieved October 9, 2011 Self Representation 2004-2011 http://supreme. justia. com/constitution/amendment-06/16-self-representation. html Retrieved October 9, 2011 Preamble: A Lawyer’s Responsibilites 1995-1999 Touch N’ Go Systems http://touchngo. com/lglcntr/ctrules/profcon/profcon. htm Retrieved October 9, 2011 National Committee on the Right to Counsel 2011 National Legal Aid and Defender Associaton http://www. nlada. org/Defender/Defender_Kit/NCRC Retrieved October 9, 2011

History of the Pneumatic Tubes

History of the Pneumatic Tubes Pneumatic devices are various tools and instruments that generate and utilize compressed air. Pneumatics are everywhere in important inventions, however, they are relatively unknown to the general public. History of the First Pneumatic Tools The hand bellows used by early smelters and blacksmiths for working iron and metals was a simple type of air compressor and the first pneumatic tool. Pneumatic Air Pumps and Compressors During the 17th century, German physicist and engineer Otto von Guericke experimented with and improved air compressors. In 1650, Guericke invented the first air pump. It could produce a partial vacuum and Guericke used it to study the phenomenon of vacuum and the role of air in combustion and respiration. In 1829, the first stage or compound air compressor was patented. A compound air compressor compresses air in successive cylinders. By 1872, compressor efficiency was improved by having the cylinders cooled by water jets, which led to the invention of water-jacketed cylinders. Pneumatic Tubes The best-known pneumatic device is, of course, the pneumatic tube. A pneumatic tube is a method of transporting objects using compressed air. In the past, pneumatic tube s  were often used in large office buildings to transport messages and objects from office to office. The first documented genuine pneumatic tube in the United States is officially listed in a 1940 patent issued to Samuel Clegg and Jacob Selvan. This was a vehicle with wheels, on a track, positioned within a tube. Alfred Beach built a pneumatic train subway in New York City (a giant pneumatic tube) based on his 1865 patent. The subway ran briefly in 1870 for one block west of City Hall. It was Americas first subway. The cash carrier invention sent money in little tubes traveling by air compression from location to location in a department store so that change could be made. The first mechanical carriers used for store service was patented (#165,473) by D. Brown on July 13, 1875. However, it was not until 1882 when an inventor called Martin patented improvements in the system that the invention became widespread. Martins patents were numbered 255,525 issued March 28, 1882, 276,441 issued April 24, 1883, and 284,456 issued on September 4, 1883. The Chicago postal pneumatic tube service began between the post office and the Winslow railroad station on August 24, 1904. The service used miles of tube rented from the Chicago Pneumatic Tube Company. Pneumatic Hammer and Drill Samuel Ingersoll invented the pneumatic drill in 1871. Charles Brady King of Detroit invented the pneumatic hammer (a hammer which is driven by compressed air) in 1890, and patented on January 28, 1894. Charles King exhibited two of his inventions at the 1893 Worlds Columbia Exposition; a pneumatic hammer for riveting and caulking and a steel brake beam for railroad road cars. Modern Pneumatic Devices During the 20th century, compressed air and of compressed-air devices increased. Jet engines use centrifugal and axial-flow compressors. Automatic machinery, labor-saving devices, and automatic control systems all use pneumatics. In the late 1960s, digital-logic pneumatic control components appeared.